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Gilpin Surname Worldwide 
Genetic & Genealogy 
Research Project

 

Genetic Genealogy  

What Can It Do For You??

 

I’ll try to explain DNA testing as I understand it. First for genealogy there are primarily three types of testing. Y-DNA, MTDNA, X & Autosomal chromosome testing.

Now to explain the testing, you have to understand a little about DNA. First to understand is that  there are about  3 billion, 300 million Plus spots (markers - bases) that can be tested. There are different markers used for different tests and they use different primers to stimulate responses.

DNA – Understanding the Basics

Every human has 23 pairs of chromosomes (think of them as recipe books), which contain most of your DNA, functional units of which are known as genes (think of them as chapters).  One chromosome of each pair comes from a person’s mother and the other from their father.  Due to the mixing, called recombination, of DNA that occurs during meiosis prior to sperm and egg development, each chromosome in 22 of the 23 pairs, which are known as autosomes, has DNA (think of it as ingredients) from both the corresponding parent’s parents (and all of their ancestors before them).

Two portions of our DNA are not combined with that of the other parent.  The 23rd chromosome, in the green box above, determines the sex of the individual.  Two X chromosomes produce a female and an X and a Y chromosome produce a male.  Women do not have a Y chromosome (otherwise they would be males) so they cannot contribute a Y chromosome to male offspring.  Given this scenario, males inherit their father’s Y chromosome unmixed with the mother’s DNA, and an X chromosome unmixed with their father’s DNA. 

This inheritance pattern is what makes it possible for us to use the Y chromosome to compare against other men of the same surname to see if they share a common ancestor, because if they do, their Y chromosome DNA will match, either exactly or nearly so.

In addition to autosomal DNA, X chromosomal DNA and, in males, Y chromosomal DNA, all found in the nucleus of a cell, there is a fourth type of DNA call mitochondrial DNA, or mtDNA for short.  This type of DNA is found in mitochondria which resides within cells but outside the cell’s nucleus.  Mitochondrial DNA packets are the cell’s powerhouse as they provide the entire body with energy.

For both genders, mitochondria DNA is inherited only from the mother.  Men have their mother’s mtDNA, but do not pass it on to their offspring.  Women have their mother’s mtDNA and pass it to both their female and male offspring.  Given this scenario, women inherit their mother’s mtDNA unmixed with the father’s and pass it on generation to generation from female to female.  (Males carry their mother’s mtDNA, but don’t pass it on.)  This inheritance pattern is what makes it possible for us to compare our mtDNA with that of others to determine whether we share a common female ancestor.

From Faqs at The Lost Colony Genealogy and DNA Research Project: 

http://www.rootsweb.ancestry.com/~molcgdrg/faqs/faqsindex.htm 

Inside a cell:

The nucleus of the cell contains all of the chromosomes, including the X and Y chromosomes.  The nucleus of the cell contains one X and one Y chromosome, if it's a cell from a male, and two X chromosomes, if it's a cell from a female.  If it's an egg cell, it just contains one X chromosome.  If it's a sperm cell, it contains either a Y chromosome or an X chromosome.  When the egg and sperm get together, the sex of the resulting embryo depends on whether the lucky sperm cell was carrying an X or Y chromosome.  If the embryo winds up with two X chromosomes the child will be a female child and  if the embryo winds up with an X and a Y chromosome, the embryo will develop to be a male child.

The X chromosome's are autosomal chromosomes just like the rest of the 22 chromosomes, so they are tested with the autosomals.  The Y-chromosome does not recombine every generation with any other chromosome, so it is unique among chromosomes. 

Outside the nucleus of the cell, there are other parts of the cell, including the mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA); which has no relationship to the nuclear DNA.  The mitochondria are the power plants for the cells.  The mitochondria produce the energy the cell needs to perform its functions.  A muscle cell would have many more mitochondria than say a lazy old skin cell.  The human body contains by volume, a lot more mtDNA than Y-DNA or X-DNA, and that's why the extraction of DNA from ancient bones or teeth is usually mtDNA.

The sperm cell has a very small amount of mtDNA; just enough to propel it upstream via its tail.  If the lucky sperm cell has any mtDNA left when it penetrates the egg, the egg kills off the remainder.  Thus, the only mtDNA passed on to the embryo (male or female) is the mtDNA from the mother; and why the mtDNA is also a value tool for genealogists like the Y-chromosome. 

People are easily confused between the mtDNA (because we call it the female DNA) and the X-chromosome which is the 'female' sex chromosome.  However the mtDNA and the X chromosome are very different and they perform very different functions.

Rob Noles / Nelda Percival

~~~~~

The animations at the Sorenson Molecular Genealogy Foundation website are an excellent visual resource for understanding how the 4 kinds of DNA are passed from the parents to a child.  http://www.smgf.org/pages/animations.jspx

Autosomal DNA are now being tested in the tests referred to as Family finder at FTDNA and Relative finder at 23&me. 

They tend to be transferred in groupings, which ultimately give us traits like Mother’s blue eyes, Grandpas chin or Dad’s stocky build.  Sometimes these inherited traits can be less positive, like deformities, diseases or tendencies like alcoholism.  How this occurs and what genes or combinations of genes are responsible for transferring particular traits is still being deciphered. 

Sometimes we inherit conflicting genes from our parents and the resolution of which trait is exhibited is called gene expression.  For example, if you inherit a gene for blue eyes and brown eyes, you can’t have both, so the complex process of gene expression determines which color of eyes you will have. 

 

How Can Unrecombined DNA Help Us With Genealogy?

I’m so glad you asked.

 

During normal cell meiosis, (pronounced my-oh-sis) each ancestor’s autosomal DNA gets watered down by half with each generation. 

 

However, that isn’t true of the Yline or mtdna.  In the following example of just 4 generations, we see that the Y chromosome, the blue bar marker on the left, is passed down the paternal line and the son has the exact same Y-Line DNA as his paternal great-grandfather.

 

Similarly, the round doughnut shaped O represents the mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) and it is passed down the maternal side, so both the daughter and the son will have the exact same mtDNA as the maternal great-grandmother (but only the females pass it on). 

 

 

 

 

The good news is that you may well have noticed that the surname is passed down the same paternal path, so if this is a Jones family, the Y-line DNA travels right along with the surname.  How it can help us with genealogy now becomes obvious, because if we can test different male descendents who also bear the Jones surname, if they share a common ancestor somewhere in recent time, their DNA will match, or nearly so.  Surname projects have been created to facilitate coordination and early comparison of individuals carrying the same or similar surnames.

 

Mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) is useful as well, but not as readily useful for genealogical purposes since the surname traditionally changes with each generation. 

 

There have been several remarkable finds using mtDNA, but they are typically more difficult to coordinate because of the challenges presented by the last name changes. 

 

What mtdna can easily do for us is to confirm, or put to bed forever, rumors of Native American, African or Asian ancestry.

 

What About Mutations?

Another really good question

Yline DNA testing actually tests either 12, 25, 37 or 67 locations on the Y chromosome, depending on which test you choose.  What is actually reported at these locations is the number of exact repeats of that segment of DNA.  Occasionally, either a segment is dropped or one is added.  This is a normal process and typically affects nothing.  These repeated segments assure that if one segment is bad, another one can take its place.  However, for genealogy, they are wonderful, as the number of segments in a particular location will typically be the same from generation to generation.

When a change, called a mutation, does occur at a particular location, it is then passed from father to son and on down that line.  That mutation, called a “line marker mutation” is then associated with that line of the family.  If you test different individuals with the same surname, and they match except for only a couple of minor differences, you can be assured that they do in fact share a common ancestor in a genealogically relevant timeframe. 

A father can potentially sire several sons, some with no mutations, and others with different mutations. Each of these mutations will be passed on to his children.

 

 

In the above example, John Patrick Kenney had two sons, one with no mutation and Paul Edward Kenney who had one mutation.  All of the male descendents of Paul Edward Kenney have his mutation and a second mutation is added to this line at a new location in the generation above Stan Kenny.

 

John Patrick Kenney’s son who had no mutations sired a son Joseph Kenney, who had a mutation in yet a different location than either of the mutations in the Paul Edward Kenney line.

 

In the span of time between 1478 and 2004, this grouping of Kenney/Kenny families has accumulated 4 distinct lines as you can see across the bottom of the diagram, line 3 with no mutations, line 1 with 2 mutations, and two other lines with only one mutation each, but those mutations are not in the same location so they are easily differentiated in descendants testing today.

 

The markers used for Y-DNA testing normally are called Short Tandem  Repeats (STRs) and single-nucleotide polymorphism  (SNPs – pronounced Snips). SNPs normally are used for population migration. Where STRs are basically  used for current genetic genealogy. 

  To read about either marker:

single-nucleotide polymorphism:

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Single-nucleotide_polymorphism

short tandem repeat:

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Short_tandem_repeat

 

 

The first to understand is that to find a  Y or MTDNA match the haplogroup of the pair of results being compared must match.. Example a man who has R1b haplogroup is not related  (with in the time frame of the use of surnames – 1000 – 2000 yrs)  to a man who has a Ib1 haplogroup, nor dose a female who has H match a female with U. (Be aware that MTDNA haplogroups are not the same as Y-DNA haplogroups.)

 

Y-Hapolgroups, depending on the testing company can be estimated by the first 12 STR markers of a Y-STR marker test. (normally Y-dna tests are just referred to by the number of markers tested as in 12 –25-36-44-67)

 

MTDNA Haplogroups are found by testing the single-nucleotide polymorphisms – SNPs. We will discuss this later.

 

When testing the autosomal  chromosomes (22 pairs)  the haplogroups of the ancestors do not matter. (this test is refered to by different names and uses chip data  knowledge. Names and type of chips depends on the testing house. FTDNA uses Family finder, 23&Me uses Relative finder. At present all the data researched/found by each test does not overlap. 23&me offers medical information, FTDNA does not.)

 

Now about Y-DNA testing (this test is primarily the same at all testing houses, except they use different primers so results sometimes need to be adjusted to equal the result found at a different testing house.)

 

We will start with the Y chromosome haplogroup.

To actually prove a haplogroup or to find a subclade of a haplogroup; a haplogroup test normally referred to as a deep clade test should be preformed. Also some companies test for particular haplogroup SNP markers. The markers tested here are called  SNPs.

 

Haplogroups, are the identifying terminology, for where you sit on the tree of humanity, it starts off with haplogroup Adam.. and after changes (mutations) in his SNPs a new haplogroup was created.. so over the few hundreds of thousands of  years, there developed  many different haplogroups. Some are descend and some are lateral  developments.  That is why a man who has R1b and a man I1b are thousands of years apart from a common ancestor. From where each haplogroup seems to have developed is developed the human migration trail out of Africa

 

Now getting down to the very easiest, the Y-STR test used for genealogy. I said before that they are basically referred to (or called/named) by the numbers.  The 37 marker, YSTR test is the one I ask the members of my surname projects to use.  It has enough Fast mutating and slow mutating STR markers to make it a good identifying amount, the more markers the better but normally 37 is enough.

 

To prove or disprove a relationship you compare the amount of the result to the result of the other person.  So example: man A -  marker DYS393=12; man B – DYS393=14  the steps of difference here is 2, all differences are accumulative.  At 37 markers, in my opinion; more then 4-5 steps of difference between two men make the common ancestor to have lived  before of the use of surnames.. Thus in the realm of current genealogy.. not related.

 

For the Gilpin Y-DNA results:

http://www.worldfamilies.net/surnames/gilpin/results?raw=1

Next is MTDNA – mtdna is a chromosome but not part of the 23 pairs, as explained already. It has a different job, it is primarily to produce and direct energy for the cell. Its mutations are very slow. A test of the MTDNA can have medical information. If you know what MTDNA SNP mutations indicate what medical information.

 

It is hard to use MTDNA for genealogy  because the maiden name changes with each generation where a man’s surname is passed  to each generation. I said hard, but it is not impossible, there have been many positive results.  You look for matching maiden names  and area locations.. Then you put the findings together. A matched maiden name, a matched time frame, a matched location, and matching mutations.

 

When testing MTDNA the results are very different from what you get with Y-DNA testing. There is a standard called Cambridge Reference Sequence, your results are compared to this and only the differences (mutations) are reported. So in this case you compare differences. To match you and the person comparing must be the same differences from the CRS.

 

Mtdna – http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mitochondrial_DNA

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_mitochondrial_DNA_haplogroup

 

Now lets discuss the newest testing.. X and autosomal testing.

First, you inherit these from all your past ancestors, second you might think you inherit 50% from each parent. NOPE… since the X chromosome and the autosomal chromosomes  combine and recombine randomly, (x to x; auto to auto) the  further away from the common ancestor the lower the chance you have a measurable segment remaining from that ancestor. One problem that I see with this testing is that a negative result of a measurable segment from a common ancestor does not mean your not related, just that the part inherited is not measurable at this time. 

(You never know – this is cutting edge science.... five years ago.. this testing was not possible…the future holds surprises! ).

Now here is some additional information from some very knowledgeable people..

 

Nelda

 

 From  - Dr. Ann  Turner in an email to me:

Females have two X chromosomes, one inherited from the father and the other
from the mother, so a connection in the X chromosome could be from either side of the family.
Males have one X chromosome, inherited from the mother. SMGF has a nice
animation showing the inheritance pathway:
 
http://www.smgf.org/education/animations/x_chromosome.jspx
 
Since not all ancestors can make a contribution to the X, you can eliminate
at least some of them as possibilities. See the diagrams on Blaine
Bettinger's site:
 
http://www.thegeneticgenealogist.com/2008/12/21/unlocking-the-genealogical-secrets-of-the-x-

chromosome/
 
http://www.thegeneticgenealogist.com/2009/01/12/more-x-chromosome-charts/
 
Note that the percentages are AVERAGES. A man's X chromosome can be exactly
the same as his maternal grandfather, exactly the same as his maternal
grandmother, or a mixture of the two, which works out to be average of 50%. I
find the demo Mendel family at 23andMe helpful in visualizing this. There are
three grandchildren and three grandparents, so you can look at different
combinations. (for 23 & me members) If they don't show up in your list of people you're sharing with, go to Account | Sharing | Example Profiles.

 

It will help you to phase the X (in other words, figure out who contributed what). This page helps tell how to do that:
http://www.isogg.org/xjourney1.html
 
If your genealogy program can print an ahnentafel chart, I've prepared a
file with the relevant ahnentafel numbers. Females should start the ahnentafel
with themselves; males should start with their mothers. Then you can go
through the ahnentafel report and delete the records of the people who could
not be the source of your X.
 
http://dnacousins.com/AHN_X.TXT 

 

 

Privacy and Confidentiality

To some degree privacy will depend on what testing company you use. There are many out there. Some have been around for years and offer excellent service and support. Others can leave you hanging. The Gilpin surname worldwide genetic genealogy project uses www.Familytreedna.com (also known as FTDNA). It is a Houston, Texas based business which was founded in 1999. 

Your unique test kit number will accompany your collection tube to the testing lab. The computer-generated number is the only information about you that the testing facility will see. Once your test has been completed the results of the Y-DNA or mtDNA test will be entered in a secure database complete with surnames. A comparison between your specific genetic results and those of others in the database will then be performed.

If a genetic match is found between you and another person in the database and you have each signed the release form you will be informed via email.


If a genetic match is found between you and another individual who tests at some time in the future, both will be given the information that a potential match is in the database provided that BOTH of you have signed the release form. Only if both parties agree will contact information concerning the separate parties be made available to the other party. In this way, all persons in the database will have the right to decide if they want to contact their genetic match(es).

 

When you join a project, such as the Gilpin family project, your project administrator will also be able to see your results, but not your password.

Privacy and confidentiality will be strictly maintained.

 

What are DNA project objectives? 

Most surname projects begin with the objective to identify others who are related; throughout the project the other objectives are achieved simply as a result of the project.

1) Identify others who are related [It will not tell you exactly how you are related]
2) Prove or disprove theories regarding ancestors [Results may help you focus your research]
3) Solve brick walls in your research
4) Determine a location for further research
5) Validate existing research
6) Develop a DNA database for future researchers [If we don't find our answers now, perhaps our descendants will]

 

Why The Gilpin project was created and the results we have found.

I created the Gilpin surname worldwide genetic genealogy project in 2005. We have several Gilpin males tested at FTDNA, one tested at ancestry.com, one tested at Sorenson’s Molecular Genealogy Foundation. We have tests currently being processed at FTDNA. We have one McAlpine male who has tested at ftdna and is listed with us.  Out of these few men, not counting the McAlpine; we have over four distinct lineages that are not related within the time frame of the use of surnames.  Two of these lineages seem to be non-parental events (NPE). In some cases these could be where the expected father is not the biological father, but the child carries the surname anyway. In other cases, the this NPE could have been hundreds of years before. 

One NPE line has lived in Kentmere/ Kendal areas since 1268 AD. This has been documentated, with the giving of the Manor and lands of Ulwithwaite to Richard Gilpin by Peter de Bruys III.  The original deed of grant, in Latin, dated 1268, A. D., neatly engrossed in characters of that time, with seals in perfect condition, is still in the possession of the descendants of Rev. William Gilpin, Vicar of Boldre, near Lymington, a lineal descendant of the grantee.  

 

Were you like me and once thought that all Gilpins no matter where they were from, were related? 

 

Not so! So who are the Kentmere Hall Gilpin descendants, Who are the Scottish or Irish Gilpins? Are the Galpins related?

 

I have found that there are four separate origins of the Gilpin surname.

1. Irish -  MacGillifin Anglicized to Gilfin, Gilpin, Gill

2. Norman (?) -  deGylpyn includes Gilpin, Gilpinge, Gilpen

3. Norman (?) - Galpin

4. Scottish - MacAlpine -  Anglicized to Gilpin

 

We have men tested who have documented lineages to Portadown and Seagoe Parish, County Armagh, N. Ireland. We have four others tested with documentation that possibly places them in Wales. 

 

To solve this mystery, we need Gilpin males to test. It is preferable if you test at FTDNA, but testing elsewhere will not preclude you from membership in the project.

 

In some cases, a test might be able to be paid for from a general fund, which are donations to the project by members and non-members to facilitate testing when needed. Donations are collected by FTDNA (on our behalf) through a link on the FTDNA website where you can specify the project that will receive the donation.  Funds are never handled by the project administrator, although they do direct the use of the funding by applying it to specific kits.

   

When testing through ftdna, indicate which surname project you want to test with; as there is a price reduction if your kit is ordered through the project.

 

You can contact me at:

 nelda_percival@hotmail.com

Or by phone at 573-347-9962

Leave name and number and I’ll return your call shortly.

 

Cordially,

Nelda Percival nee Gilpin

Of the Irish Gilpins by genetics

 

Article provided by

Roberta Estes of  www.dnaexplain.com

and Andrew Lancaster of the Lancaster Surname Project at FTDNA.

Graphics provided by FTDNA

Additions to the combined articles are provided by

Nelda Percival, Gilpin Surname Project at FTDNA

P.O. Box 68

Climax Springs MO.

65324

 

Another Good read on DNA:

http://www.dna-testing-adviser.com 

 

FTDNA = 

Gilpin Y-DNA project = http://www.familytreedna.com/group-join.aspx?Group=Gilpin 

 

Gillock Y-DNA project = http://www.familytreedna.com/group-join.aspx?Group=Gillock 

 

Bonstein Y-DNA project = http://www.familytreedna.com/group-join.aspx?Group=Bonstein 

 

Cupp Y-DNA project = http://www.familytreedna.com/group-join.aspx?Group=Cupp 

 

 

 

Human Genetic Haplogroups

What are they?

 

This is  a gathering of information from different internet websites.

URLs below.

 

In human genetics, the haplogroups most commonly studied are Y-chromosome (Y-DNA) haplogroups and mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) haplogroups, both of which can be used to define genetic populations. Y-DNA is passed solely along the patrilineal line, while mtDNA is passed solely on the matrilineal line. They are not the same, although, they both use SNPs for testing.

 

YDNA HAPLOGROUPS:

 

In human genetics, a Human Y-chromosome DNA haplogroup is a haplogroup defined by differences in the non-recombining portions of DNA from the Y chromosome (called Y-DNA). The marker tested is called a SNP (pounced snip) The Y Chromosome Consortium has established a system of defining Y-DNA haplogroups by letters A through to T, with further subdivisions using numbers and lower case letters.

 

Y-chromosomal Adam is the name given by researchers to a theoretical male who is the most recent common patrilineal (male-lineage) ancestor of all living humans. Estimations of the date of this common ancestor have varied significantly in different studies.

In human genetics, Y-chromosomal Adam (Y-MRCA) is the patrilineal human most recent common ancestor (MRCA) from whom all Y chromosomes in living men are descended. Y-chromosomal Adam is thus the male counterpart of Mitochondrial Eve (the mt-MRCA), the matrilineal human most recent common ancestor, from whom all mitochondrial DNA in living humans is descended, although they lived at different times.

By analyzing DNA from people in all regions of the world, geneticist Spencer Wells has concluded that all humans alive today are descended from a single man who lived in Africa around 60,000 years ago. However, because the earliest Homo sapien  is thought to have lived around 200,000 years ago, some doubt the validity of this assertion. Possibly there was a genetic isolation and remixing of early ancestral groups within Africa, with one group having been relatively more isolated and therefore having a higher predominance of an ancient Y-chromosome haplotype extant in their culture.

Population geneticists are interested in tracking the movements of groups of humans over time scales of 1000's or 10,000's of years. Therefore their studies usually involve a different type of Y-chromosome marker known as SNPs (along with insertions and deletions) which have a much slower mutation rate than STRs, (STRs are the primary markers used in Genetic Genealogy studies of men's Y chromosomes.). Haplogroups are defined by patterns seen in the alleles of these slowly mutating SNP markers. Identification of your Y-chromosome haplogroup can provide an interesting glimpse into the deep ancestry of your paternal line.

A SNP test would be the only way of identifying one's haplogroup for certain. However some conclusions can be drawn about haplogroup classification by looking just at the STR marker value patterns. Whit Athey has put together a Haplogroup Predictor that uses these STR patterns to give estimates of Y haplogroup.

 

Searches for new SNP's have only been conducted in about 1% of the length of the Y chromsome - so much remains to be discovered. Most of the haplogroups that have been identified to date are more than 10,000 years old - which means that enough migration has occurred since then that most haplogroups are seen to one degree or another all over the European continent. This limits their utility in trying to determine a place of origin for your line. As more research is done, younger haplogroups will be discovered that have a more limited geographic range, and we may soon be able to learn more specific geographic information from haplogroups.

 

MTDNA - HAPLOGROUPS:

 

The purpose of mitochondrial DNA is the production and absorption of energy within cells, not genealogy as genealogists tend to believe.  The Coding Region is where the instructions for energy production resides.  Mutations do exist in the coding region, but they are rarer than in the rest, as cell energy production is essential to life itself. Mutations in the coding region are more likely to cause conditions that interfere with life itself, causing those organisms  not to survive or to reproduce, and therefore the mutation  not to survive either.

 

Mitochondrial DNA is physically arranged in a circle resembling a clock.  There are 16,569 base pairs that comprise mtdna.  Think of each location of those 16,569 as sub second clicks on the clock face.  At 12 noon on the clock face begins location 1 and at 11:59 we find location 16,569.  Looking at the clock, these areas roughly cover the time from about 11:55 to about 12:05.  This entire segment is called the D-Loop, or diagnostic loop, and the rest of the clock is called the Coding Region. 

Who is Mitochondrial Eve?

Judging from 2 fossils found in the Omo River Valley, the earliest anatomically modern human is thought to have lived in Africa about 195,000 years ago. 

It is thought that all females alive today descend from one common ancestress, thought to have lived approximately 140,000 years ago. She lived in Africa and migrated, probably with a small group from Africa into the Eurasian Continent. There were probably several migrations out of Africa, but currently embraced thought suggests only the final migration was successful and did not become extinct.

Mitochondrial Eve probably migrated with other women who descended from other lines, but those lines died out and eventually, only the descendants of Eve were left to reproduce.  This means that we are all related in some way, long ago.  Over time, different lines of various “daughters” of Eve developed “line marker” mutations, such that when we see that specific mutation, we know that the individual came from that daughter’s line. 

 

The following tree, compliments of www.WorldFamilies.net shows a basic diagram of how the daughters of Mitochondrial Eve split into families.  Eve, the mother Haplogroup L, is at the top and H, the largest European haplogroup is at the bottom right.

Mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) is not as readily useful for genealogical purposes since the surname traditionally changes with each generation.  There have been several remarkable finds using mtDNA, but they are typically much more difficult to coordinate due to the surname changes with each generation. 

 

When analyzing mitochondrial DNA, we compare your results to the results of an individual whose DNA was sequenced in 1981 at Cambridge University.  This set of results which has become the standard is called the Cambridge Reference Sequence, or CRS.  Everyone else’s DNA is compared against theirs, and the differences (mutations) duly noted. 

(Note A MTDNA TEST ONLY SHOWS YOU THE MUTATIONS- It is not like a Ydna test which shows the results of each marker...nlp) 

 

The National Geographic Genographic project began in April of 2005 and is scheduled to continue for 5 years.  Its mission is to discover exactly the different  kinds of migration paths and events.  For more information, you can visit their web site at www.nationalgeographic.com/genographic.  

They have an especially wonderful section called Atlas of the Human Journey at https://www3.nationalgeographic.com/genographic/atlas.html.

 

References:

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_Y-chromosome_DNA_haplogroup 
http://www.scs.uiuc.edu/~mcdonald/WorldHaplogroupsMaps.pdf 
http://freepages.genealogy.rootsweb.ancestry.com/~dgarvey/DNA/RelGenMarkers.htm 
http://www.kerchner.com/haplogroups-mtdna.htm 



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Last updated:  05/27/2011 09:23:41 AM

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